When I wrote this essay for my Literary Forms course at Sai University, I was fascinated by a question that most analyses of Moll Flanders overlook: who actually helps Moll survive? Not her husbands (who die, abandon her, or turn out to be her brother). Not the legal system (which sentences her to death). Instead, it's a network of women operating in society's blind spots—midwives, landladies, pawnbrokers, and thieves. This is their story.
Introduction.
Born to a convicted mother in London’s Newgate prison, Moll Flanders enters the world under challenging circumstances. Despite her early struggles, Moll receives education and guidance from a widowed nurse and grows into a beautiful young woman. However, her life takes an unexpected turn as she faces seduction, abandonment, and compelled marriages. She is, by Defoe’s expression, “Twelve Year a Whore, five times a Wife (whereof once to her own Brother), Twelve Year a Thief, Eight Year a Transported Felon in Virginia.”
In her pursuit of financial independence and her dream of becoming a “gentlewoman”, Moll constantly challenges traditional gender roles. She engages in morally questionable activities, appearing as a whore, bigamist, and thief, committing adultery and incest, and yet, manages to maintain readers’ sympathy.
Related Works.
In exploring the theme of feminism in Moll Flanders, an analysis of existing literature sheds light on Moll’s pursuit for equality in the patriarchal English society of the 17th century, the deconstruction of traditional notions of manhood and the femininity of Moll Flanders.
This paper attempts to analyze the relationships between Moll and the other female characters in the novel, and answer the following research questions: How do the dynamics of Moll’s interactions with the various female characters contribute to the broader themes of sisterhood and friendship amongst women? What were the ways in which female characters supported each other within the societal constraints of the late seventeenth century?
It attempts to argue that various strategies are employed by women to carve out spaces of spaces of autonomy in the limiting structure of the society in seventeenth century England.
From an incredibly young age, societal expectations dictate that Moll would eventually “go to Service,” which meant work as a domestic servant or maid. There are limited opportunities available for women of Moll’s economic stratum. Moll spends her early years under the guardianship of a widowed nurse, who is financially supported by the church to care for orphans until they reach an age deemed suitable for “going into Service '' or sustaining themselves. The nurse is described as “a woman who was indeed Poor, but had been in better circumstances, and who got a little livelihood by taking such as I was suppos’d to be; and keeping them with all Necessaries, till they were at a certain Age, in which it might be suppos’d they might go to service, or get their own Bread.” (Defoe, p. 46). The nurse not only serves as a motherly figure, she imparts to Moll a wide array of skills, ranging from manners to needlework, thereby empowering her. Her influence shapes Moll’s initial understanding of societal expectations and womanhood.
An early conflict that arises in the story is Moll’s misinterpretation of a “gentlewoman.” Moll envisions a life in which she can provide for herself without relying on others. The irony of her example, a prostitute, draws laughter from those around her. The notions of social class (or lack thereof) and nobility do not fascinate her, rather, she is drawn towards the idea of being independent. The women that Moll encounters throughout the course of the novel align with her idea of a “gentlewoman”: individuals that use their intelligence and self-sufficiency to survive. In fact, most of the establishments that Moll frequents, such as the Nurse’s school, the Bath, the Governess’s quarters, and her mother’s plantation, are managed by women.
Given Moll’s strong aversion towards the idea of “going into Service”, her only legal alternative is marriage. Moll quickly learns that marriage, particularly for women, was merely seen as a business arrangement, a way in which women could achieve upward mobility. Marrying for love was a luxury that she could not entertain. More often than not, Moll marries for necessity rather than affection.
Moll’s circumstances align with the concept of intersectionality in feminism (Carasthasis). Feminist theory claims that women’s lives are shaped by a number of intersecting systems of oppression. The expectation that she will inevitably enter domestic service shows that her options are not only constrained by her gender but also by her socioeconomic background.
As Moll grows older, her association with other women is also transactional in nature. They are driven by shared economic interests or the pursuit of social mobility, by Moll’s own admission: “I kept no company that knew who I was, or what became of me, and yet I wanted nothing that money could purchase.” Moll’s relationship with the captain’s wife serves as a critical example: she aids her friend in winning back a suitor, and in return, the captain’s lady supports Moll financially and puts together a scheme to enhance Moll’s social standing, enabling her to choose a wealthy prospective husband.
When Moll confided in her landlady at the Bath about being pregnant, the latter makes arrangements for a midwife and a nurse, and tells authorities a deceptive tale about Moll being the wife of a wealthy lord in order to secure her better care. By crafting a narrative that aligns with the societal norms of marriage and class, the landlady shields Moll from judgment and protects her in what is a man’s world.
Throughout her life, Moll is largely emotionally detached from most individuals that she encounters. A notable exception is the lasting bond that she develops with the midwife, whom she refers to as her “Governess.” It is initially transactional in nature, however, as Moll faces personal complications involving the banker and the birth of her child, the midwife’s role eventually evolves into that of a confidante, and later, into a partnership rooted in criminal activities. The governess’s means of livelihood extends beyond midwifery: she subtly hints at her ability to perform abortions, and at her role as a procuress. “The Life of her Governess,” Defoe says, “seems in a few Years all the eminent degrees of a Gentlewoman, a Whore and a Bawd; a Midwife, and a Midwife-Keeper, as they are call’d, a Pawn-broker, a Child-taker, a Receiver of Thieves, and of Thieves purchase, that is to say, of stolen Goods, and in a Word, her self is a Thief, a breeder up of Thieves, and the like, and yet at last a Penitent.”
Moll’s interactions with the Governess began at a time of great vulnerability, as she grappled with the difficult decision of what to do with her child. The midwife’s practice was host to women in predicaments similar to Moll’s, carrying children out of wedlock. The Governess, with her criminal past and eloquence, paradoxically excels as a midwife. Her ability to preserve her safety from the gallows showcases her ability to navigate a patriarchal society by drawing strength from unconventional skills. The midwife’s practice aligns with Simone Debeauvoir’s notion of women carving out spaces of freedom for themselves within social constraints. Despite Moll paying the least amongst the midwife’s guests, she is treated with utmost care. Moll often shared her emotional struggles and moral dilemmas with the midwife, who in turn provided valuable counsel. Moll made out that the Governess’s words “put new Life and new Spirit into my very Heart; my blood began to circulate immediately, and I was quite another Body.”
Women are often confined by societal expectations tied to their reproductive capacities, and their destinies are primarily shaped by biology (De Beauvoir). Moll’s experiences reflect this struggle as she grapples with the consequences of her pregnancies and the judgment attached to being an unwed mother.
The decision of what to do with the child upon its birth posed a challenge. The governess regularly tends to the requirements of "Ladies of Pleasure" and skillfully arranges for the disposal of Moll's newborn, reassuring Moll that the child would be entrusted to a rural family and cared for, in exchange for an annual fee. Moll agreed to this arrangement reluctantly, but without protest.
Due to her interactions with the Governess, Moll undergoes something of an evolution. She matures in sophistication and worldly understanding, and is amazed as she discovers the elaborate underworld of criminal activities.
After moving on to yet another marriage, and becoming widowed thereafter, Moll faces financial ruin. She comes to realize that avenues like marriage and childbearing, which she once relied upon for securing wealth, were no longer practical due to her advancement in age. As she searches for alternate means to sustain herself, her desperation leads her back into the Governess’s path. Despite facing financial hardship herself, due to a lawsuit since their last encounter, the Governess, now operating as a pawnbroker, leads a comfortable life. She is described by Moll as a “stirring bustling Woman, and had some Stock left, and she was turn’d Pawn Broker, and liv’d pretty well.”
The governess recognises Moll’s skills and initiates a criminal partnership that further blurs moral boundaries. Moll attested that the governess “gave me such Directions, and I so well follow’d them, that I grew the greatest Artist of my time.” This collaboration, built on mutual benefit, is solely driven by economic survival, which often took precedence over moral considerations.
There is a strong correlation between Moll’s gender and subsequent life of crime: as a woman, she does not enjoy the same privileges as men. She does not have access to education or the right to own property. Her choices were limited to “going to Service” or marriage. Moll resorts to thievery only after her marriages fail to secure her the anticipated wealth or social standing.
According to feminists like De Beauvoir, economic dependency perpetuates womens’ subjugation. Engaging in theft and deception are merely strategies for survival in a system that denies women conventional avenues of empowerment. Moll’s involvement in thievery, sewing and becoming the mistress of a baronet, are solely attempts to gain financial autonomy. Similarly, the Governess’s unconventional roles are an illustration of resistance against structures that perpetuate economic subjugation.
Amidst their successful episodes of criminal history, Moll eventually faces moral repercussions for her actions. She is caught, convicted and sentenced to death. Facing the prospect of ending her life where it began, Moll’s repentance and conversion in Newgate, delivered with eloquence, influences the minister. The minister arranges for her transport to America, thereby sparing her from the originally assigned death sentence. When Moll departs from England, she describes the Governess to be “a dear Friend, and all the Friends I have in the World.” The parting moment highlights Defoe’s exploration of the meaningful relationships that exist between women outside of conventional structures.
Conclusion.
Moll Flanders, when viewed through a feminist lens, offers a nuanced exploration of the societal expectations faced by women in seventeenth century England. Moll’s story is a response to societal constraints: the expectation for Moll to go into domestic service, her lack of agency in marital choices, and ultimate resort to thievery point towards the harsh conditions that women in the seventeenth century were put through.
References.
Defoe, Daniel. Moll Flanders. Penguin, 1989.
De Beauvoir, Simone. The Second Sex. Vintage Books, 1989
Sağlam, Berkem. “Matriarchal Space and Formation of Identity in Moll Flanders.” IDEAS: Journal of English Literary Studies, vol. 3, no. 1, 2023, pp. 18–30.
Kramer, Ryan. "A Look at Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders: Turn the Page and Celebrate the New Roles of Women in Eighteenth-Century England." Fisher Digital Publications English Senior Seminar Papers, 2012.
Chaber, Lois A. "Matriarchal Mirror: Women and Capital in Moll Flanders." PMLA, vol. 97, no. 2, 1982, pp. 212-226. Modern Language Association, https://www.jstor.org/stable/462188.
Carastathis, Anna. "The Concept of Intersectionality in Feminist Theory." California State University, Los Angeles.
Sohier, Jacques. "Moll Flanders and the Rise of the Complete Gentlewoman-Tradeswoman." Eighteenth-Century Novel 2. (2002): 1-21. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 9 Nov. 2012.
Novak, Maximillian E. "Defoe's 'Indifferent Monitor': The Complexity of Moll Flanders." Eighteenth-Century Studies 3. (1970): 351-365. JSTOR. Web. 14 Nov. 2012.
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